Zambia’s energy system is defined by a difficult contrast. The country has major rivers, large hydropower stations, strong solar resources and a central position in Southern Africa’s electricity market. At the same time, drought has shown how quickly this apparent strength can turn into a national power shortage. Low reservoir levels have reduced generation, increased load shedding and placed pressure on households, businesses and public services.
Energy is also tied closely to Zambia’s copper industry. Mines need reliable electricity for extraction, processing, smelting and water management, while the government wants to raise copper production and develop more local manufacturing. Zambia therefore needs more than additional generating capacity. It needs an energy mix that can continue working when rainfall is weak, mining demand rises or regional power supplies become limited.
Zambia’s Energy System Was Built Around Water
Hydropower has shaped Zambia’s electricity sector for decades. The Zambezi and Kafue river systems created opportunities to build large stations that could supply mines, cities and industries with relatively low-carbon electricity. Hydroelectric plants still account for most of the country’s installed capacity.
Major facilities include Kariba North Bank, Kafue Gorge Upper, Kafue Gorge Lower, Itezhi-Tezhi and the Victoria Falls power stations. Kariba North Bank has an installed capacity of 1,080 megawatts, while Kafue Gorge Upper provides 990 megawatts and Kafue Gorge Lower adds another 750 megawatts.
This concentration gave Zambia an electricity system that could produce large amounts of power without depending heavily on imported coal or natural gas. It also created a serious climate risk. When rainfall is poor across the Zambezi and Kafue catchments, several major stations can lose output at the same time.
That risk became clear during the severe 2024 drought. Although Zambia had more installed capacity than its normal peak demand, available generation fell sharply because reservoirs could not provide enough water. The resulting electricity deficit affected homes, shops, schools, farms and smaller industrial users.
Hydropower will remain central to Zambia energy policy. Existing dams and power stations are too important to replace, and the country still has undeveloped hydro resources. However, new hydro projects alone cannot solve the problem. Additional dams would still depend on rainfall, river flows and shared water resources. Zambia’s central energy challenge is therefore diversification rather than the abandonment of hydropower.
Copper Mining Turns Electricity Into an Economic Issue
Zambia cannot separate its energy plans from copper mining. Mining is the country’s largest industrial electricity user and one of the main sources of export income. The Copperbelt and North-Western Province contain large mines that require continuous power for crushing, pumping, ventilation, concentration and smelting.
Electricity shortages create different problems for mines and ordinary consumers. Large mining companies may have direct supply agreements, backup generation or enough financial strength to import electricity. Smaller businesses and households have fewer options. During a national shortage, protecting mining production can therefore leave less power available for other parts of the economy.
The pressure is expected to increase. Zambia wants to expand copper production from roughly 800,000 tonnes per year toward several million tonnes annually. New mines, mine expansions and more local processing would all increase electricity demand. Government planning estimates that mining power demand could rise from 886 megawatts in 2020 to more than 1,550 megawatts by 2030.
Copper also gives Zambia a reason to build cleaner electricity. Copper is essential for transmission lines, electric vehicles, renewable energy systems and modern electronics. Buyers and investors are paying greater attention to the emissions connected with mineral production. Zambia could strengthen its position in the global copper market if its mines are supported by reliable hydroelectricity, solar power and other lower-carbon sources.
The country’s energy future will therefore help decide whether Zambia remains mainly a mineral exporter or develops a wider industrial economy around copper cables, electrical equipment, batteries and processed metals.
Coal Provides Firm Power When the Reservoirs Fall
Coal has a smaller role than hydropower in Zambia, but it has become strategically important because it can generate electricity regardless of rainfall. Zambia has domestic coal resources, especially around Maamba in Southern Province, where mining and thermal power generation operate together.
The Maamba coal-fired power station has an operating capacity of 300 megawatts. Its output provides firm electricity that can support the grid when hydro generation falls. During drought periods, this makes coal more valuable than its share of installed capacity might suggest.
A second 300-megawatt phase has been under development at Maamba. The expansion was designed to double the station’s capacity and provide additional baseload power. Its development also shows the tension inside Zambia’s energy strategy. The country wants more renewable electricity, but it also needs generation that can run at night, during dry seasons and when hydropower reservoirs are low.
Coal carries clear disadvantages. New coal stations require major financing, produce carbon emissions and may face higher long-term costs as international lenders reduce support for coal projects. Local mining and combustion can also create air, water and land-management concerns.
For Zambia, coal is not likely to replace hydropower as the main source of electricity. Its more realistic role is as a limited source of firm capacity while solar, storage, transmission links and other technologies expand. The risk is that temporary dependence could become a long-term commitment if cleaner alternatives are not developed quickly enough.
Natural Gas Has Not Become a Major Zambian Energy Source
Natural gas plays only a minor role in Zambia compared with its importance in countries such as Mozambique, Tanzania or South Africa. Zambia does not have large commercial gas production, a national gas transmission network or a major fleet of gas-fired power stations.
This limits the country’s ability to use natural gas as a flexible partner for solar and hydropower. Gas turbines can start quickly and respond to changes in electricity demand, but Zambia would first need secure fuel supplies, import infrastructure and commercially viable generation projects.
The country’s landlocked location makes large-scale gas imports more difficult. Pipeline gas would require cross-border infrastructure, while liquefied natural gas would have to enter through a coastal country before being transported into Zambia. These costs make domestic solar, hydropower, coal and regional electricity imports more practical in the near term.
Liquefied petroleum gas is more visible in the household and commercial energy market. LPG imports have increased as the government and private suppliers promote alternatives to charcoal, firewood and electric cooking. LPG is not the same as natural gas, but it can help reduce pressure on the electricity grid and forests when used for cooking.
Biogas also has potential in farming areas, food processing facilities and institutions that produce organic waste. However, neither LPG nor biogas currently changes the basic structure of Zambia’s power system.
Oil Imports Connect Zambia to the Indian Ocean
Zambia does not have significant commercial crude oil production, so petroleum demand is supplied mainly through imports. Diesel and petrol remain essential for road transport, mining equipment, agriculture, construction and backup generators.
The country’s landlocked geography makes petroleum infrastructure particularly important. The TAZAMA pipeline connects the port of Dar es Salaam in Tanzania with Ndola in Zambia. It was originally designed to carry crude oil to the Indeni refinery, but it has increasingly been used to transport imported low-sulphur diesel under an open-access arrangement.
This shift reflects the changing structure of Zambia’s fuel market. Importing finished petroleum products can reduce some of the operational problems connected with an older refinery, but it also leaves the country exposed to international oil prices, exchange-rate movements and transport disruptions.
Road imports through Tanzania, Mozambique, Namibia and other regional routes provide additional supply options. However, long distances raise costs, and delays at borders can affect fuel availability. Storage depots, pipeline maintenance and competition among oil marketing companies are therefore important parts of national energy security.
Oil has a limited direct role in Zambia’s main electricity mix, although diesel and heavy fuel oil generators provide backup or emergency capacity. Its larger role is in transport and mining. Electric vehicles may gradually reduce urban fuel use, but heavy trucks, mining machinery and long-distance freight will continue to depend on petroleum for years.
Solar Power Has Moved From Opportunity to Urgent Policy
Solar energy is the clearest route for reducing Zambia’s dependence on rainfall. The country has strong sunlight across much of its territory, and solar plants can be built faster than large dams, coal stations or nuclear facilities.
Early utility-scale projects included the 54-megawatt Bangweulu Solar Park and the 47.5-megawatt Ngonye Solar Park near Lusaka. Copperbelt Energy Corporation also developed solar plants to serve industrial demand and support its electricity network.
The solar market accelerated after the 2024 power crisis. The 100-megawatt Chisamba solar plant entered service in 2025, while additional public and private projects were developed in places such as Serenje, Mansa, Chipata and Choma. Zambia has also introduced faster licensing procedures, net metering and agreements for smaller generators to sell electricity into the grid.
Solar has an important seasonal advantage. Zambia’s driest periods often have strong sunlight, which means solar output can rise when hydropower conditions are weak. Solar plants can also be located closer to mines, towns or weak parts of the grid instead of concentrating most generation around the Zambezi and Kafue rivers.
The main limit is time. Solar panels produce no electricity at night, and cloud cover can reduce output during the day. Zambia therefore needs batteries, stronger regional interconnections, flexible hydro operations and other firm capacity. Solar power should be treated as part of a wider system rather than a direct replacement for every megawatt of hydropower.
Wind, geothermal power, biomass generation and small hydropower may also contribute, but they remain less developed. Solar is likely to provide most of Zambia’s near-term non-hydro renewable growth because it is modular, widely available and increasingly attractive to private investors.
The National Grid Must Catch Up With New Generation
Building power stations will not solve Zambia’s electricity problem if transmission and distribution infrastructure cannot deliver the power. Much of the existing grid was designed around large hydropower plants in the south and major industrial demand in Lusaka, the Copperbelt and mining regions.
ZESCO remains the central institution in the electricity system. It owns and operates most large generating assets and controls much of the transmission and distribution network. Independent power producers and private networks, including the Copperbelt Energy Corporation system, also play important roles.
Government plans call for a major expansion of the transmission network. The Integrated Resource Plan aims to increase high-voltage line length from about 12,700 kilometres in 2023 to almost 17,900 kilometres by 2030. New corridors are needed to move power toward the Copperbelt, North-Western Province, Eastern Province and areas where solar development is increasing.
Grid reliability also depends on substations, transformers, maintenance and modern control systems. New solar plants can create congestion if they are connected faster than transmission capacity is expanded. Technical losses and weak local distribution networks can further reduce the amount of electricity that reaches consumers.
Reform is beginning to change the market. Zambia’s open-access framework allows qualifying producers and customers to use transmission and distribution systems without requiring ZESCO to act as the only buyer. Net metering also allows homes and businesses with solar systems to send excess electricity to the grid.
These measures could attract private investment, especially from mines seeking secure renewable power. Their success will depend on clear tariffs, reliable payments, transparent access rules and enough capacity on the network.
Regional Power Trade Could Make Zambia an Electricity Crossroads
Zambia’s location gives it unusual strategic value. It sits between the Southern African Power Pool and the emerging electricity markets of East Africa. Existing interconnections link Zambia with Zimbabwe, Namibia and the Democratic Republic of the Congo.
These links allow Zambia to import electricity during shortages and export power when it has a surplus. However, regional trade is not a complete safety net. Droughts often affect several southern African countries at once, which means Zambia, Zimbabwe, Malawi and other hydro-dependent systems may all need additional power during the same period.
The Zambia–Tanzania–Kenya interconnector could create a more important change. It is intended to link the Southern African Power Pool with the Eastern Africa Power Pool, opening access to a larger and more diverse electricity market. Zambia and Mozambique are also advancing plans for a high-voltage interconnector between Chipata and the Tete region.
Stronger regional connections would allow Zambia to buy power from a wider range of sources. They could also support new domestic projects by giving generators access to customers beyond the Zambian market.
Zambia’s goal of becoming a regional electricity-trading hub is therefore realistic, but it requires investment inside the country as well as at the borders. Weak internal transmission lines could prevent electricity from moving efficiently between new interconnectors, mining areas and population centres.
Electricity Access Remains Uneven Beyond the Main Grid
National generating capacity is only one measure of energy development. A large part of Zambia’s population still lacks reliable electricity, particularly in rural communities where homes are widely separated and grid extensions are expensive.
Recent national estimates place electricity access at a little more than half of the population. Urban access is much higher than rural access. This divide affects education, healthcare, communications, refrigeration, small businesses and agricultural processing.
Zambia’s low population density makes off-grid solar particularly important. Solar home systems can provide lighting, phone charging and basic appliance use without waiting for a transmission or distribution line. Solar mini-grids can support larger loads such as clinics, water pumps, mills, shops and cold storage.
The country’s electrification plans combine grid connections, mini-grids and individual household systems. Government analysis suggests that off-grid technology may be the least-cost solution for a large share of people who do not currently have electricity.
Electricity access also raises a financial question. A household may be located near a power line but remain unconnected because connection fees, wiring and monthly bills are unaffordable. Universal access will therefore require subsidies, affordable finance and productive uses of electricity that help communities earn enough income to support the service.
Charcoal and Firewood Are Still Part of the Energy Economy
Zambia’s energy profile is not limited to power stations and petroleum. Firewood and charcoal remain the main cooking fuels for many households. In 2023, more than half of households used firewood, while more than one quarter depended on charcoal.
Charcoal is particularly important in urban areas because it is easy to store, transport and sell in small amounts. It also supports incomes for producers, traders and transporters. However, inefficient charcoal production contributes to forest loss, while indoor smoke creates health risks.
Electric cooking could reduce charcoal use, but unreliable power and load shedding make households less willing to depend on electricity alone. LPG, ethanol, biogas, improved biomass stoves and electric pressure cookers can all form part of the solution.
The government has set a target of increasing access to clean cooking, but progress will depend on affordability and supply chains. A stove has little value if families cannot find or afford its fuel. Clean cooking policy must therefore connect forest management, electricity reliability, LPG distribution, household income and local business development.
Nuclear Power Is a Long-Term Proposal, Not a Current Supply Source
Zambia does not operate a commercial nuclear power station. Nuclear energy therefore contributes nothing to the country’s present electricity generation.
The government has nevertheless explored nuclear technology as a long-term option. Zambia has worked with the International Atomic Energy Agency on nuclear security, regulation, technical skills and peaceful nuclear applications. Government statements have also presented nuclear power as a possible source of reliable electricity that could support industrialisation and reduce exposure to drought.
A nuclear programme would require many years of preparation. Zambia would need an independent and experienced regulator, trained engineers, emergency planning, waste-management rules, a suitable site and a financing model able to support a very large project.
Grid size is another issue. A conventional nuclear reactor can be too large for a power system where normal national demand is only a few thousand megawatts. Small modular reactors may eventually offer a better technical fit, but their commercial costs and construction record are still developing internationally.
For the next decade, solar power, transmission investment, hydropower management, regional imports and firm thermal generation are likely to matter more. Nuclear energy remains part of Zambia’s strategic discussion rather than an immediate answer to load shedding.
Zambia’s Energy Future Depends on Diversity
Zambia already has many of the resources needed for a stronger energy system. It has major hydropower assets, domestic coal, strong solar conditions, regional transmission links and growing private-sector interest. The deeper problem is that these assets are not yet balanced well enough to protect the economy from drought and rising demand.
Hydropower will remain the foundation, but future security will require much more solar generation, battery storage, stronger transmission lines and better regional trade. Coal may provide firm power during the transition, although its cost and emissions will limit its long-term appeal. Petroleum imports will remain essential for transport, while LPG and other fuels can help reduce dependence on charcoal.
The largest test will come from economic growth. Zambia wants more mines, more mineral processing, greater agricultural production and wider electricity access. Each goal requires additional power. The country must expand supply while also ensuring that households and smaller businesses are not pushed behind large industrial users.
Zambia’s energy transition is therefore not simply a move from fossil fuels to renewables. It is a move from dependence on one renewable resource toward a broader and more resilient system. The country’s success will depend on whether new generation, grid investment, energy access and copper-led industrial growth can advance together.